permaculture

[Lawrence London <lfljvenaura@gmail.com>]

Fruit Trenches: Cultivating Subtropical Plants in Freezing Temperatures -
LOW-TECH MAGAZINE
https://www.lowtechmagazine.com/2020/04/fruit-trenches-cultivating-subtropical-plants-in-freezing-temperatures.html

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Fruit Trenches: Cultivating Subtropical Plants in Freezing Temperatures

[image: плантации-476x500]
<https://krisdedecker.typepad.com/.a/6a00e0099229e88833025d9b464dd1200c-pi>

Citrus fruits (oranges, lemons, mandarins, tangerines, grapefruits, limes,
pomeloes) are the highest-value fruit crop in terms of international trade.
Citrus plants are not frost-hardy and can only be grown in tropical and
subtropical climates – unless they are cultivated in fossil fuel heated
glasshouses.

However, during the first half of the twentieth century, citrus fruits came
to be grown a good distance from the (sub)tropical regions they usually
thrive in. The Russians managed to grow citrus outdoors, where temperatures
drop as low as minus 30 degrees Celsius, and without the use of glass or
fossil fuels.

By 1950, the Soviet Union boasted 30,000 hectares of citrus plantations,
producing 200,000 tonnes of fruits per year.
------------------------------
*The Expansion of Citrus Production in the Soviet Union*

Before the first World War, the total area occupied by citrus plantations
in the Russian Empire was estimated at a mere 160 hectares, located almost
entirely in the coastal area of Western Georgia. This region enjoys a
relatively mild winter climate because of its proximity to the Black Sea
and the Caucasus Mountain range – which protects it against cold winter
winds coming from the Russian plains and Western Siberia.

Nevertheless, such a climate is far from ideal for citrus production:
although the average winter temperature is above zero, thermal minima may
drop to between -8 to -12 degrees Celsius. Frost is deadly to citrus
plants, even a short blast. For example, at the end of the 19th century,
the extensive citrus industry in Florida (US) was almost completely
destroyed when temperatures dropped briefly to between -3 and -8 degrees
Celsius.

[image: Citrus-fruits-map-ussr]
<https://krisdedecker.typepad.com/.a/6a00e0099229e88833025d9b4650bc200c-pi>

>From the 1920s onwards, the Russians extended the area of citrus
cultivation to regions considered even less suited. Initially, citrus
production extended westward along the Black Sea coast, a region
unprotected by mountains, and where temperatures can drop to -15 degrees
Celsius. This includes Sochi – which hosted the 2014 Winter Olympics – and
the southern coast of Crimea. At the same time, citrus cultivation extended
eastward to the west coast of the Caspian Sea, in Azerbaijan.

Citrus production was then spread to regions where winter temperatures can
drop to -20 degrees Celsius, and where the ground can freeze to a depth of
20-30 cm: larger parts of the earlier mentioned zones, as well as Dagestan,
Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, and the southern districts of Ukraine
and Moldova. Finally, citrus cultivation was pushed further north in these
regions, where winter temperatures can plummet to -30 degrees Celsius, and
where the ground can freeze to a depth of 50 cm.

Frost was not the only obstacle to citrus cultivation in these parts of the
world. The region is also characterised by excessive summer heat and
strong, dry winds.
*From Import Dependency to Self-Sufficiency*

Before the first World War, almost all citrus fruits in ancient Russia came
from abroad. The main suppliers were Sicily (for lemons) and Palestine (for
oranges). Some 20,000 to 30,000 tonnes of citrus fruits were imported
annually. Its consumption with tea, the national drink in Russia, meant
lemon made up almost three-quarters of these imports.

In 1925, following the Russian Revolution and the civil war, citrus growing
became the subject of planned development. The Communist Party was
determined to become self-sufficient in citrus production, and no efforts
were spared. They set up several research establishments and nurseries, as
well as test fields in more than 50 locations.

By 1940, the acreage had grown to 17,000 hectares and production reached
40,000 tonnes, double the annual imports under the old regime. By 1950, the
area planted with citrus fruits reached 30,000 hectares (56% mandarin
trees, 28% lemon trees, 16% orange trees), and production grew to 200,000
tonnes of fruits per year.

[image: Lemon-plantation-caucasus-krasnodar]
<https://krisdedecker.typepad.com/.a/6a00e0099229e888330240a4fb9914200d-pi>

The large share of mandarin trees can be explained by the fact that they
are the most cold-resistant of all citrus fruits, tolerating frosts to
about -2 degrees Celsius. Lemon trees, on the other hand, are the least
cold-resistant citrus variety.

There are three reasons why the Russians managed to grow citrus fruits in
regions that were (and are) considered totally unfit for it. First, they
bred citrus varieties that were more resistant to cold. Second, they pruned
citrus plants in radical ways that made them more resistant to cold, heat
and wind. This eventually resulted in creeping citrus plants, which were
only 25 cm tall. Third, they planted citrus plants in unlikely locations,
most notably in trenches of up to two metres deep.
*“Progressive cold-hardening”*

Imported citrus varieties only survived in a few isolated points along the
Black Sea coast, which enjoyed a particularly favourable microclimate. To
better prepare citrus fruits for cold, Soviet citrologists followed a
method called “progressive cold-hardening”. It allowed them to create new
varieties which were adapted to local ecological conditions, a cultivation
strategy which had originally been developed for apricot trees and grapes.

The method consists of planting a seed of a highly valued tree a bit
further north of its original location, and then waiting for it to give
seeds. Those seeds are then planted a bit further north, and with the
process repeated further, slowly but steadily pushing the citrus variety
towards less hospitable climates. Using this method, apricot trees from
Rostov could eventually be grown in Mitchurinsk, 650 km further up north,
where they developed apricot seeds that were adapted to the local climate.
On the other hand, directly planting the seed of the Rostov apricot tree in
Mitchurinsk proved unsuccessful.

[image: Citrus-shrub]
<https://krisdedecker.typepad.com/.a/6a00e0099229e888330240a5205b07200b-pi>

The method, developed following the observation that young plants started
from seed adapt to the conditions of the new environment, also proved
successful for citrus fruits – which retained high yields and high quality
fruits. As well as “progressive cold-hardening”, from 1929 onwards the
Russian citrologists performed a methodological selection of cold-resistant
varieties, which were hybridised with the best local varieties. This was
facilitated by an extensive collection of citrus fruits, which included
almost all representatives of the genus Citrus.
*Dwarf and Semi-Dwarf Citrus Trees*

In the main citrus growing centres worldwide, pruning citrus plants was
very rare. Harold Hume, a renowned Canadian-American botanist, even advised
to “keep pruning shears as far as possible from the citrus plantation”.

However, pruning was crucial to the cultivation of citrus plants in Russia.
First and foremost, pruning reduced the height of the citrus plants.
Conventional lemon trees grow up to 5 metres tall, while orange trees can
be 12 metres tall. On the other hand, even prior to the 1920s, Russians
worked with dwarf and semi-dwarf citrus trees, which were only 1 to 2
metres tall. These trees were further pruned to have compact crowns.

More compact trees have two advantages. First, closer to the ground,
temperature variations are smaller and wind speed is lower. Second, smaller
trees are easier to protect against the elements. In the region with the
mildest climate, where an initial 160 ha of citrus fruits were grown,
plantations were often located on terraces or on steep slopes, taking up
the smallest piece of land with a favourable microclimate.

[image: Mikhail-beringov]
<https://krisdedecker.typepad.com/.a/6a00e0099229e88833025d9b467ee6200c-pi>

*"Collecting tangerines at the Chakva state farm", a painting by Mikhail
Beringov, 1930s.*

During winter, individual citrus plants in these plantations were protected
by a shelter made of cheesecloth or straw mats, supported by a light frame
of poles. Plantations were also surrounded by windbreak curtains, arranged
in such a way that they mitigated both the cold winter winds and hot, dry
summer winds. These curtains also channeled the cold air masses descending
from the tops of the hills outside of the plantations.

Further protection against cold and wind was generated by planting trees
very close together – up to 3,000 plants per hectare. Excessive summer heat
was counteracted by spraying whitewash on the upper part of the leaves,
which lowered their temperature by about 4 degrees Celsius. All these
methods work for large-stemmed citrus trees, but of course they are much
cheaper and easier to perform on trees with a height of only 1 to 2 metres.
*Creeping Citrus Trees*

Training small citrus plants was key to extending their cultivation across
all regions of the Black Sea coast, where until then it had been
impossible. This was achieved by pruning and guiding citrus plants into a
creeping form, which reduced their height to a mere 25 cm.

The crown of creeping citrus plants was formed in two ways. In the first
method, the trunk of the tree took an inclined position as soon as it left
the soil. The main branches of the crown, formed in a unilateral fan,
touched the ground, and so did the fruits. In the second method, the 10-15
cm tall stem was kept straight while the main branches developed radially
at an angle of 90 degrees to the trunk, thus (seen from above) forming a
spider-like crown. In this case, the branches and the fruits did not touch
the ground, and this proved to be the most successful method.

[image: Creeping-tree]
<https://krisdedecker.typepad.com/.a/6a00e0099229e888330240a4fbc04a200d-pi>

*Creeping culture, here applied to an apple tree. Source
<https://frukti-yagodi.ru/formirovanie-kroni-molodoj-yabloni-sxema/>.*

Creeping citrus trees offered even better protection against cold and wind
compared to dwarf and semi-dwarf trees, because the creeping crown created
a microclimate that softened both the summer maxima and the winter minima.
During a 10-year long test, it was found that in winter, the air layer at
the level of the creeping crown was on average 2.5 to 3 degrees Celsius
warmer than the air layer at 2 metres above the ground. In summer, during
hot weather, the difference in temperature could exceed 20 degrees Celsius.

Wind protection was just as effective. The wind speed at 2 metres above the
ground reached an average of 10.4 metres per second, while it was only 1.8
metres per second at the level of creeping lemon trees. This limited
dehydration of the crown so that less water was needed.

[image: Creeping-1]
<https://krisdedecker.typepad.com/.a/6a00e0099229e888330240a4fbf8e6200d-pi>

[image: Skhema-arkticheskogo-stlanca-2]
<https://krisdedecker.typepad.com/.a/6a00e0099229e888330240a4fc1805200d-pi>[image:
Creeping-culture]
<https://krisdedecker.typepad.com/.a/6a00e0099229e888330240a4fbc098200d-pi>

Logically, the very small size of creeping plants made it even easier and
cheaper to protect them against the elements. Moreover, as a protection
strategy it proved to be more effective: during the winter of 1942-43, when
temperatures along the Black Sea coast went down to -15 degrees, creeping
lemon trees protected by a double layer of cheesecloth and by windbreaks
did not suffer in any way, while similarly protected taller-stemmed lemon
trees froze to the roots.

Perhaps surprisingly, creeping citrus plants had higher yields than
semi-dwarf citrus plants. The fruits ripened earlier, and produced more
fruits, especially during the first years.
*Cultivating Citrus Trees in Trenches*

None of the above mentioned cultivation methods were sufficient to grow
citrus fruits in regions where the ground froze and where winter
temperatures dropped below -15 degrees. Here, citrus plants were cultivated
in trenches. Obviously, growing citrus fruits in trenches was only
practical with dwarf and – most often – creeping plants. In this method,
soil heat protects citrus fruits from frost.

The depth of the trenches varied from 0.8 to 2 metres depending on the
winter temperature, the depth to which the ground froze, and the water
table. The trees could be planted in single or double rows. Trenches were
generally trapezoidal in section to improve light conditions. They were
roughly 2.5 metres wide at the bottom and 3 metres wide at the top for
single rows of plants, and 3.5 metres wide at the bottom and 4 metres wide
at the top for double rows of plants.

[image: Citrus-in-trenches-2]
<https://krisdedecker.typepad.com/.a/6a00e0099229e888330240a4fb9995200d-pi>

If necessary, the walls were coated with clay or reinforced with brick or
shell rock. Inside the trench, the plants were positioned 1.5 metres apart
from each other, and when two rows were planted, each plant in the first
row was located between two plants in the second row. The length of the
trenches depended on the nature of the terrain, but did not surpass 50
metres.

Trenches were located on level ground or light slopes, oriented from east
to west in order for optimal sunlight during the winter months. They were
spaced apart 3-5 metres from each other when they contained a single row of
plants, and 4-6 metres when they had a double row of plants. Trenches could
be connected to each other, which made it more convenient to care for the
plants.

[image: Citrus-culture-in-trenches-odessa-1956]
<https://krisdedecker.typepad.com/.a/6a00e0099229e888330240a4fbf899200d-pi>

The space in between the trenches allowed for the placing of shade screens
or planting of natural shading plants. These increased the humidity in the
trenches and protected the citrus plants from overheating in summer.
*Covering the Trenches*

During the summer, plants received the same care as those planted in the
ground under “ordinary” conditions. When winter came, the trenches were
covered with 2 cm thick wooden boards and single or double straw mats,
depending on the climate. This kept the soil heat in the trench, while
keeping precipitation out. If a layer of snow covered the boards, it was
left in place for extra insulation. The boards were sloped at an angle of
30-35 degrees. When in winter the temperature rose above zero degrees
Celsius, the cover was raised on the south side or completely removed
during the day.

This method cannot be applied to any plant. Citrus plants tolerate very low
light levels for 3-4 months per year, provided that the temperature of the
air in contact with the crown is maintained between 1 and 4 degrees
Celsius. At this temperature, the metabolism of the plants weakens, which
improves their resistance to cold.

[image: Dwarf-tree-in-trench]
<https://krisdedecker.typepad.com/.a/6a00e0099229e888330240a520bacf200b-pi>

[image: Citrus-growing-in-trenches]
<https://krisdedecker.typepad.com/.a/6a00e0099229e888330240a4fb99aa200d-pi>

Glass was only used sparingly. Wooden boards gave much better frost
protection, were much cheaper, and could be made from local materials. The
plants needed some stray light, so that up to a quarter of the trench
shelter area was made of glass frames, which were covered with straw mats
as well as a top cover of earth and clay. Only a few openings here and
there provided light and ventilation.

The cultivation of creeping citrus plants in trenches, although
labour-intensive, was a simple method that did not require large
investment, and provided high yields (80 to 200 fruits per stem per year)
as well as high quality tropical fruits. All types of citrus fruits were
grown in trenches.
*Other Cultivation Methods*

Apart from trenches, Soviet citrologists used other types of shelters to
grow citrus plants – all of which were more effective with smaller sized
trees (usually dwarf cultures). Some included (usually sparse) use of
fossil fuels.

A first example is the cultivation of citrus fruits with annual
transplantation. Citrus plants spent the summer outdoors, but as winter
approached, they were dug up with the clod of earth surrounding their
roots, and transported to wintering sheds, where they were crammed together
for as long as it was freezing outside. In spring, they were moved back to
their original location. Where the winters were relatively mild, these
winter sheds were light wooden buildings that were generally unheated. In
colder regions, they were made of masonry, half buried into the ground, and
fitted with heating devices.

[image: Limonarium]
<https://krisdedecker.typepad.com/.a/6a00e0099229e888330240a5205c21200b-pi>

*A limonarium.*

Citrus plants were also grown in unheated glasshouses. These “limonaria”,
located on the Black Sea coast, were semi-circular glasshouses, built
around particularly well-exposed hills with terraces. The trees were grown
as espaliers – a method reminiscent of the fruit walls in northern European
countries, which facilitated cultivation of peaches and other Mediterranean
fruits at high latitudes
<https://www.lowtechmagazine.com/2015/12/fruit-walls-urban-farming.html>.

Heated glasshouses, which used electric heating and artificially controlled
carbon dioxide and humidity throughout the year, were only used in
industrial centers located beyond the Arctic Cycle. Finally, citrus fruits
were grown throughout the Soviet Union in pots or boxes in apartments,
schools, public buildings, and even in the glass halls of factories and
workshops – making use of the waste heat from space heating or industrial
processes (steam or hot water).

Few of these methods would have been profitable under a free trade regime.
Considerable research investment went into kickstarting domestic citrus
production. Although most methods did not require fossil fuels and were
possible using cheap and locally available materials, they were very labour
intensive. Domestic citrus production was only possible because it was
sheltered – not only from frost, but from foreign competition too.

Kris De Decker.

Edited by Alice Essam. Thanks to Alexandrine Maes.
------------------------------

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------------------------------
*Sources:*

   - Les Agrumes en U.R.S.S., Boris Tkatchenko, in Fruits, vol.6, nr.3,
   pp.89-98, 1951.
   
http://www.fruitiers-rares.info/articles21a26/article24-agrumes-en-URSS-1-Citrus.html
   &
   
http://www.fruitiers-rares.info/articles51a56/article53-agrumes-en-URSS-2-Citrus.html
   - М. А. КАПЦИНЕЛЬ, ВЫРАЩИВАНИЕ ЦИТРУСОВЫХ КУЛЬТУР В РОСТОВСКОЙ ОБЛАСТИ
   РОСТОВСКОЕ КНИЖНОЕ ИЗДАТЕЛЬСТВО Ростов-на-Дону —1953. ("Growing citrus
   cultures in the Rostov region", M.A. Kaptsinel).
   http://homecitrus.ru/books.html
   - Мандарин – туапсинский господин?, СВЕТЛАНА СВЕТЛОВА, 16 ДЕКАБРЯ 2018
   https://tuapsevesti.ru/archives/40995
   - http://www.agrumes-passion.com/plantation-entretien-f49/topic4913.html
   -
   
https://www.supersadovnik.ru/text/yablonya-neobychnye-sposoby-formirovaniya-1003334
   - https://selskoe_hozyaistvo.academic.ru/2847/стелющаяся_культура
   - http://viknaodessa.od.ua/old-photo/

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Posted on April 16, 2020 at 02:07 AM in Agriculture
<https://www.lowtechmagazine.com/agriculture/>, Cover story
<https://www.lowtechmagazine.com/cover-story/>, Low-tech solutions
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(1)

Fascinating article, but I did have a couple questions.

What are some of the disadvantages of smaller trees? I would assume that
tightly-pruned crowns would make it harder for the fruits to grow. How were
pests kept away from the ground-creeping varieties? How were the fruits
kept off of the wet ground?

Posted by: Sean O'Brien | April 17, 2020 at 03:37 PM
<https://www.lowtechmagazine.com/2020/04/fruit-trenches-cultivating-subtropical-plants-in-freezing-temperatures.html?cid=6a00e0099229e888330240a5213e17200b#comment-6a00e0099229e888330240a5213e17200b>
[image: Jude]

(2)

I imagine a great deal of rain pooling at the bottom of the trenches during
summer rains. Wouldn't this kill the trees?

Posted by: Jude | April 17, 2020 at 06:49 PM
<https://www.lowtechmagazine.com/2020/04/fruit-trenches-cultivating-subtropical-plants-in-freezing-temperatures.html?cid=6a00e0099229e888330240a5214c54200b#comment-6a00e0099229e888330240a5214c54200b>
[image: Ron]

(3)

Fantastic article. It has left me wondering about soil types in the areas
where these technologies were successfully implemented.

Soils in trenches must have been free draining at the very least.

Posted by: Ron <http://Apw.Org.Nz> | April 17, 2020 at 08:47 PM
<https://www.lowtechmagazine.com/2020/04/fruit-trenches-cultivating-subtropical-plants-in-freezing-temperatures.html?cid=6a00e0099229e888330240a5215634200b#comment-6a00e0099229e888330240a5215634200b>
[image: Oliver Drerup]

(4)

I am very interested in Russian horticulture and want to thank you for
making this valuable information available.

I have worked in residential construction in Russia (Tver Region) and was
struck by the horticultural practice and plant selection employed by the
Transport and Highway Departments in the Region. It appears to me that the
plant material and maintenance regime required to sustain safe and
attractive highway verges and medians is much better thought through in
Russia than where I make my home in Ontario, Canada. Russia seems to rely
less on chemical interventions and the byways look better and requires less
investment.

I want to encourage you to research this aspect of Russian horticulture and
share what they know with the world. Roadway planting is a major expense
and should be much better designed for low intensity maintenance,
particularly in colder climates. I have attempted to research this area a
bit and find good information difficult to locate. Many thanks for your
consideration of this issue and thank you again for your excellent work.

Posted by: Oliver Drerup | April 17, 2020 at 08:53 PM
<https://www.lowtechmagazine.com/2020/04/fruit-trenches-cultivating-subtropical-plants-in-freezing-temperatures.html?cid=6a00e0099229e88833025d9b474fc7200c#comment-6a00e0099229e88833025d9b474fc7200c>
[image: Graham Ford]

(5)

Another brilliant article, Kris. Thank you!

Posted by: Graham Ford | April 17, 2020 at 10:14 PM
<https://www.lowtechmagazine.com/2020/04/fruit-trenches-cultivating-subtropical-plants-in-freezing-temperatures.html?cid=6a00e0099229e88833025d9b47567c200c#comment-6a00e0099229e88833025d9b47567c200c>
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Bedazzled by Energy Efficiency

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<https://www.lowtechmagazine.com/2018/01/bedazzled-by-energy-efficiency.html>
   - Bedazzled by Energy Efficiency
   
<https://www.lowtechmagazine.com/2018/01/bedazzled-by-energy-efficiency.html>
   To focus on energy efficiency is to make present ways of life
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Fruit Walls

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   <https://www.lowtechmagazine.com/2015/12/fruit-walls-urban-farming.html>
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The Chinese Wheelbarrow

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Human Powered Cranes

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<https://www.lowtechmagazine.com/2010/03/history-of-human-powered-cranes.html>
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Thermal Comfort

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<https://www.lowtechmagazine.com/2015/02/heating-people-not-spaces.html>Restoring
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Hand Tools

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Mist Showers: Sustainable Decadence?

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<https://www.lowtechmagazine.com/2019/10/mist-showers-sustainable-decadence.html>
   - Mist Showers: Sustainable Decadence?
   
<https://www.lowtechmagazine.com/2019/10/mist-showers-sustainable-decadence.html>

Off-Grid Energy Storage

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<https://www.lowtechmagazine.com/2018/05/ditch-the-batteries-off-the-grid-compressed-air-energy-storage.html>
   - Ditch the Batteries: Off-Grid Compressed Air Energy Storage
   
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