permaculture

[Lawrence London <lfljvenaura@gmail.com>]

ATTRA Summary: Sustainable Agriculture Concepts and Farm Applications,
November 1992
http://www.ibiblio.org/london/orgfarm/issues-and-news/issues/sustainable-agriculture-defined/2/sustag.def.attra

APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER FOR RURAL AREAS, P.O. Box 3657,
Fayetteville, AR  72702; 1-800-346-9140


                          ATTRA Summary:

      Sustainable Agriculture Concepts and Farm Applications


     The term "sustainable agriculture" was introduced in the
early 1980's and has since gained wide recognition.  It is used to
convey the concept of a system of agriculture that is
ecologically, economically, and socially viable, in the short as
well as long term.  Rather than standing for a specific set of
farming practices, a sustainable agriculture represents the
end-goal of developing a food production system that:

     - yields plentiful, affordable, high-quality food and other
       agricultural products

     - does not deplete or damage natural resources (such as soil,
       water, wildlife, fossil fuels, or the germ-plasm base)

     - promotes the health of the environment

     - provides a good livelihood for farmers

     - supports a broad base and diversity of farms and the health
       of rural communities

     - depends on energy from the sun and on natural biological
       process for fertility and pest management

     - can last indefinitely

     Many different views exist about what a sustainable
agriculture is as well as about how to achieve it.  Of the many
definitions proposed for sustainable agriculture, most address the
kinds of qualities mentioned above.  However, a variety of terms
have emerged in addition to "sustainable" to refer to the concept,
or to aspects, of sustainability in agriculture.  The most popular
of these have been:  "alternative," "low-input," "regenerative,"
and "organic."  Examples of other terms for approaches toward or
concepts of sustainability are:  "natural," "biodynamic," "eco- or
ecological," "biologically-sound," and "permaculture."

     These terms, and others in use, represent different specific
philosophies and techniques in sustainable agriculture to
different audiences.  In addition, some may be found used
interchangeably to mean the concept of "a sustainable agriculture"
as the type of overall end-goal described above.


Typical Farm Applications

     On the farm, concepts of what sustainable agriculture is can
serve as guiding principles for making choices about how to design
farming systems as well as about what farming practices to use.
Because understandings of what is sustainable may vary, or will
change, so will the types of farming systems created from an
application of sustainable principles.  However, there are
features which tend to be typical of farming systems designed with
sustainability as a goal.

     For example, crop fertility is generally handled in these
systems by developing management alternatives to applications of
synthetic petroleum-based fertilizers.  Practices which protect
and improve soils; conserve, cycle, and improve the availability
of crop nutrients; and reduce nutrient leaching are emphasized,
instead.  Examples are:

     - crop rotations
     - cover cropping
     - inclusion of nitrogen-fixing legumes
     - green manuring
     - composting of crop residues
     - intercropping and agroforestry
     - forms of conservation tillage

     Systems involving livestock feature practices which conserve
and effectively allocate nutrients from animal manures, such as:
intensive rotational grazing, and systems for manure collection
and storage, stabilization by composting or anaerobic digestion,
and well-planned application.

     Methods of pest management in more-sustainably managed
farming systems generally aim to reduce or eliminate applications
of synthetically derived pesticides and to support beneficial
organisms and other natural checks on farm pests.  In cropping
systems, cultural, physical, and biological methods may be
emphasized, and Integrated Pest Management (IPM) techniques like
pest monitoring may play an important role.  Practices may
include:

     - timing of field operations
     - crop rotations
     - choosing pest-resistant varieties
     - site sanitation
     - mulching
     - mechanical management
     - physical barriers
     - biologically derived pesticides

     Weeds in pastures may be managed with intensive or
mixed-species grazing.  More-sustainable livestock systems may
also feature methods of housing, feeding, and pest management that
avoid disease- and pest-promoting conditions.

     Overall, management methods for these farms promote greater
diversity in biological systems on or related to the farm, such as
those involving soil microorganisms and earthworms, or wildlife.
They also aim to:  emphasize reliance on on-farm resources rather
than on external inputs -- including energy; conserve and protect
soil and water; keep operating costs low; and increase economic
diversity to enhance and stabilize farm income.

     The features touched on here show how working toward
sustainability on the farm is more involved than adopting
individual production techniques.  It entails developing an
integrated, holistic system of crops and management practices.  To
become sustainable, farming systems need to be designed and
operated in cooperation with natural systems.  They also need to
be tailored to the characteristics and resources specific to each
farm.


Why a Sustainable Agriculture?

     A sustainable agriculture is the future standard, or
convention, our agriculture is moving toward in order to remain
productive and meet changing food needs.  Within society, support
for developing a sustainable agriculture is founded on some common
understandings.  For one, there is wide recognition now that our
need to ensure a secure food system requires us to have an
approach to agriculture that emphasizes a protected environment
and resource base.  In addition, there is a growing consensus that
our agriculture also needs to be the product of a stable, diverse,
broad-based, and self-supporting farm economy.

     Our current conventional form of agriculture -- in place
since WWII -- is credited with the production of large quantities
of low-priced food.  But conventional agriculture's heavy use of
fossil fuels, synthetic chemicals, capital-intensive technologies,
and large-scale monocultures has generated extensive and
problematic environmental, economic, and social costs.  Society as
a whole now has a better understanding of these costs which, among
other impacts, are endangering future agricultural productivity.

     Making a change to more-sustainable systems can be worthwhile
for farmers.  As concluded in the National Research Council's 1989
study, "Alternative Agriculture":  "Farmers successfully adopting
these systems generally derive significant sustained economic and
environmental benefits."  Adopting a more sustainable approach to
farming may for some be a practical response to restrictions on
resource-depleting and environmentally harmful agricultural
practices and technologies.  For others, developing a food system
that works cooperatively with nature is the primary goal.


Making the Farm More Sustainable

     Farmers often find that making major changes toward
sustainability on the farm can require a transition period of up
to several years.  The nature and length of the transition period
for an individual farm depends on the type and size of farm to
start with as well as on the kinds of changes implemented.  During
the transition, farmers may experience fluctuations in crop yields
and farm income as new methods get established and farm systems
adjust to any changes made.  Purchases of special inputs, such as
non-conventional fertilizers, may also be required during the
transition.

     To one degree or another, steps farmers take to make a farm
more sustainable involve all aspects of the farm system.  Farm
labor and management needs are affected, as are farm biological
systems; uses for equipment, buildings, and tools; and the roles
played by water, minerals, and soil.

     To make the transition, farmers commonly find they need new
kinds of management skills along with increased knowledge about
the key elements and interactions in their farm system.  Taking
steps to diversify production or to rely less on synthetic
chemicals for fertility and pest management, for example, may
require farmers to:  1) become familiar with new crops; 2)
understand and monitor pests more thoroughly; 3) use new types of
equipment and practices for planting and harvesting and for
fertility and pest management; 4) allocate and schedule labor
inputs differently; 5) know more about and work more precisely
with farm soil, water, plant, insect, and animal systems and
system interactions; and 6) develop new marketing strategies.

     Changing farming methods may also require farmers to plan for
financial and time demands of acquiring new skills, equipment, or
materials for implementing desired changes in the farm.  Extra
finances may also be needed to pay for advice, or to weather
temporary income changes during a transition.


     Changes commonly made:

     While each farm is unique, certain types of changes are often
instituted by farmers working to apply sustainable agricultural
principles to their farms.  A basic step farmers commonly take is
to make changes which increase the levels of biological and
economic diversity of the farm.  These may include adding new
crops or crop varieties, integrating livestock with crop
enterprises, or developing additional ways to market farm
products.

     Meeting needs for nitrogen and other crop nutrients and for
alternative forms of pest management may be a farmer's most
immediate challenge when changing from conventional methods.  To
start developing on-farm fertility, farmers often initiate general
soil-maintenance practices such as:  crop rotations, cover
cropping, and conservation tillage.  Specific practices farmers
may adopt to improve soils and supply crop nutrients, especially
nitrogen, are:  1) including nitrogen-fixing legumes in rotation
with non-legume crops; and 2) soil-incorporating legume and other
crops as "green manures."  Practices often instituted which are
well-suited to small or intensively managed enterprises may
include the application of composted crop residues or of other
organic amendments, and techniques like "foliar feeding."

     Changes in pest management farmers make generally give a
greater role to non-chemical tactics for preventing a start-up of
pest problems or for suppressing problem pest populations.
Preventive tactics for crops may include choosing pest-free plant
starts, or supporting habitat for natural pest enemies.
Non-chemical suppression tactics may range from crop rotations or
tillage to planned releases of beneficial insects.  Alternative
chemical tactics may range from reduced- or spot-spray methods to
a reliance on botanical and other biologically derived pesticides.
Farmers may implement pest monitoring and other IPM techniques for
identifying combinations of tactics that carefully target pests
and that best meet farmer-goals for an effective, ecologically
sound pest management program.

     Other changes made may include switching to more efficient
forms of irrigation or to crop varieties better adapted to local
climatic and soil conditions.  In livestock systems, farmers may
opt to:  grow their own feed; institute non-chemical pest
management (such as rotating pastures to manage parasites); phase
out controversial growth additives; or produce a leaner meat
product.


     Important time factors:

     Examples of time factors that can be important in making a
transition from conventional methods include time needed to:  1)
improve compacted soils and raise soil levels of organic matter,
earthworms, and microorganisms; 2) improve farm levels of
bio-diversity and of natural pest enemies; 3) establish new crops,
technologies, and enterprises; 4) learn and become proficient at a
new management skills; and 5) stabilize farm income and operating
costs.  Time factors such as these can be especially critical for
farmers choosing to farm organically who are working to meet
strict farming and waiting-period requirements involved in being
certified to sell products as "organic."


     Barriers encountered:

     Lack of adequate knowledge and skills can be a serious
barrier to changing from conventional farming practices.  New
production approaches may also require equipment, materials for
fertility or pest management, crop seed or starts, or livestock
that are not widely available, or that are expensive.  Making
investments up front and risking a period of income instability
and of managerial trial-and-error can be important barriers for
farmers who don't have financial reserves built up.

     Historically, institutional barriers have presented important
limits to farmer-adoption of sustainable methods.  These barriers
have included:  1) inadequate support for developing and
disseminating technical and practical information on alternative
farming methods; 2) low investment in supplying alternative
technologies, equipment, and materials; 3) farm credit biases; and
4) restrictive product grading and commodity program policies.


Support for Sustainable Systems

     An array of new and long-established farmer and environmental
organizations and spokespersons have had a key role in promoting
the development of sustainable agricultural systems.  Their
contributions include significant outreach, research and
demonstration, and political efforts.  At the federal level,
Congress has taken some important steps through '85 and '90 farm
bill legislation to support sustainable agriculture, including the
creation and funding of the national-scale USDA "LISA" (Low-Input
Sustainable Agriculture) Program.

     The LISA Program, now administered as the "Sustainable
Agriculture Research and Education" (SARE) Program, funds
innovative research and extension projects aimed at meeting
farmers' needs for practical information on sustainable
agriculture.  With fiscal funding up to $6.72 million in 1991 and
also in 1992, the LISA (now SARE) Program has awarded hundreds of
state- and regional-level project grants.  Funded projects are
often designed and management jointly by several kinds of
individual or organizational participants, including:  farmers;
university or private researchers, educators, or extensionists;
and public agency staff.  To date, thousands of farmers have
participated in SARE projects.

     The non-profit ATTRA ("Appropriate Technology Transfer for
Rural Areas") national direct-access information service is
another product of federal funding initiatives to support
sustainable agriculture.  ATTRA -- which produced this Summary --
responds to individual questions from farmers and others about
sustainable agricultural production and marketing.

     SARE projects, dozens of farmer organizations such as the
Practical Farmers of Iowa, non-profit research organizations such
as Rodale Institute, and direct-access information providers like
ATTRA or the National Agriculture Library are making available
important sustainable agriculture information-transfer and
skill-learning opportunities to farmers.  These opportunities
include:  farm tours, farmer field days, and on-farm
demonstrations which promote farmer-to-farmer contact; workshops,
symposiums, and conferences for information exchange and skills
training; projects to conduct on-farm research; and publications
and other media.


     Barriers easing:

     Coinciding with these efforts, some institutional barriers to
farmer adoption of sustainable methods are easing.  Representative
of this change, for instance, are new commodity program provisions
allowing farmers to grow certain cover and alternative crops and
use crop rotations on program base acres.  Congress is also now
requiring a greater focus of USDA research on environmental, rural
economic, and resource issues, and of Extension on sustainable
agriculture outreach to farmers.

     Working from a different tack to encourage sustainable
farming choices, the beginnings of legislated restrictions
targeting certain conventional practices are being enacted at the
state level.  State-sponsored projects, like California's
Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education Program (SAREP),
are also being created to meet in-state needs for sustainable
agriculture research and information.  At the same time, a number
of universities across the country are sponsoring innovative
research and degree programs in sustainable agriculture.  In the
commercial arena, as well, a variety of businesses now distribute
products of, supply, and advise farmers who are working to apply
sustainable methods.

For More Information

     This publication summarizes information on sustainable
agriculture researched and compiled by ATTRA technical staff.
Further information on any of the sustainable agriculture
concepts, applications, or terms mentioned in this Summary can be
obtained by contacting ATTRA.  ATTRA also has additional
information on organizations working in sustainable agriculture.
Call ATTRA toll-free at:  1-800-346-9140.


                          ATTRA Summary:
      Sustainable Agriculture Concepts and Farm Applications


     Written by:  Holly Winger
     Editorial and Project Director:  Christine Rugen
     (PageMaker Version Design/Layout:  Jim Tracy)

     December 1991; update:  November 1992