permaculture

[steved@ncatfyv.uark.edu (Steve Diver)]

Permies,
   Eucalyptus ain't hardy in most of the U.S. temperate
zone, but in many parts of the world the question arises as 
to whether eucalyptus is appropriate in a particular permaculture 
design.  Here's some insights on the advantages and disadvantages of
eucalyptus FYI from Devel-L. 
   

Forwarded message:
> From UAFSYSB.UARK.EDU!LISTSERV.AMERICAN.EDU!owner-devel-l Fri Feb  3 
> 21:54:34 1995
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> Message-ID:  <9502040326.AA25619@sunspot.eds.ecip.nagoya-u.ac.jp>
> Date:         Sat, 4 Feb 1995 12:30:49 +0900
> Reply-To:     Ana Paula <m940219m@EDS.ECIP.NAGOYA-U.AC.JP>
> Sender:       Technology Transfer in International Development
>               <DEVEL-L@LISTSERV.AMERICAN.EDU>
> From:         Ana Paula <m940219m@EDS.ECIP.NAGOYA-U.AC.JP>
> Subject:      Summary/Use of Eucalyptus in Reforestation Projects
> X-To:         DEVEL-L@AMERICAN.EDU
> To:           Multiple recipients of list DEVEL-L
>               <DEVEL-L@LISTSERV.AMERICAN.EDU>
> 
> Introduction
> 
> The number of answers received was 33.  Among the messages received, many
> demonstrated interest in reading a summary. Some people also  demonstrated
> interest in knowing who else is working with this topic.  Therefore the
> information received was structured into 7 items and a number of opinions
> are reproduced in the text.
> 
> Please accept  my  apologies for  not  being able to mention the
> institutional affiliations of all those cited in the text.  Unfortunately
> many of those who sent the messages did not mention their institutions.
> Please accept my apologies for any inconvenience caused.
> 
> Please notice that this discussion was proposed to the members of
> ENVIRONMENT IN LATIN AMERICA NETWORK (ELAN) and TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER IN
> DEVELOPMENT (DEVEL-L). This summary is being sent to both lists.  Sorry for
> the inconvenience of cross-posting if you subscribe to both lists.
> 
> Respecting the privacy of all the electronic addresses received, it was
> decided not to mention them in the text. Considering that all those cited
> probably subscribe one of the lists it is believed that all of them can be
> reached through the lists ELAN or DEVEL-L.
> 
> I was also asked to give comments about our view now; compared to before
> the question was posted in the Internet. Thus it is worthy acknowledging on
> behalf of my study group the educational validity of being able to have
> such a discussion through the list.  Since we do not have a background in
> areas related to the topic, the messages honestly achieved the purpose of
> educating us and incited our curiosity to learn more.
> 
> Finally, I would like to acknowledge the special contribution of the
> Professors JoAnn Jaffe, Mong-Shing Sim and Gebrekiduce Mekonnen for their
> kindly comments when examining this summary before being posted to the list
> in order to certify the quality of the same.  Professor Gene Wengert was
> also very kind in forwarding my inquiry to other institutions and
> contacting professionals in the area.
> 
> Thanks very much indeed to all those who contributed to this work.
> Ana Paula Lordello
> 
> ____________________________________________________________
> 
> 
> SUMMARY OF IDEAS - REFORESTATION WITH EUCALYPTUS
> 
> The question proposed was:
> "WHICH ARE THE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
> OF THE USE OF EUCALYPTUS IN REFORESTATION PROJECTS"
> 
> STRUCTURE OF THIS SUMMARY:
> 1. Reexamining the discussion's proposal.
> 2. Reforestation for commercial purposes.
> 3. Reforestation for social forestry purposes.
> 4. Scientific Information on Reforestation
> 5. Relate of people's experiences with reforestation projects and
> Eucalyptus (Africa, Asia, Latin America, USA) and scientific information
> 6. Acknowledgment
> 7. Scholars researching the topic
> 8. Suggested Bibliography
> 
> 
> 
> 1. REEXAMINING THE DISCUSSION'S PROPOSAL
> 
> Prof. Gebrekiduce Mekonnen, from Ottawa, Canada:
> observes that the point of the discussion is wrong.
> It should be: "Which needs does eucalyptus meet or does not meet" or "Which
> qualities make eucalyptus more or less attractive to plant in an area."
> 
> Dante Mossi, from Honduras, is a student from Vanderbilt University.  He
> adds that the point of the discussion should be centered more on the demand
> side of the projects. (Thus one can only tell the advantages and
> disadvantages observing the purpose of the project.)
> 
> Prof. Gebrekiduce Mekonnen highlights the two basic objectives of a
> reforestation projects:
> 1) Commercial purposes (the market needs will dictate the choice for which
> species to plant)
> 2) Social forestry purposes (the use of eucalyptus will be right or wrong
> depending on the long term and short term needs of the site and the local
> community).
> 
> 
> 2. REFORESTATION  FOR COMMERCIAL PURPOSES
> 
> Prof. Bob Schee sent an example of the advantages and disadvantages from a
> commercial viewpoint:
> 1) advantages:
> - some species of eucalyptus are extreme combustible
> - the tree has a high heat generating capacity
> (thus it can be used as a source for urban fireplaces, saving the native
> oak woodlands.  Because of these qualities, eucalyptus is increasingly
> being sought and used as wood for fireplaces in California).
> 
> 2) disadvantages:
> - because of its extreme combustibility and its high heat generating
> capacity, if planted in dry regions can provoke fire. (Example:  the
> firestorm in the East San Francisco bay hills a few years ago was fueled
> greatly by eucalyptus.)
> 
> Professor Axel Ringe elucidates some points to ponder about short and long
> term goals : "the problem of eucalyptus grown outside of its native habitat
> is that by doing so you create a biological desert.  The only animals
> capable of using eucalyptus "products" are koalas.  The fast growth of the
> trees ensures that other plants are out competed and die off.  This may be
> advantageous to the economic interests looking at the short-term
> profitability of the land, but is extremely disadvantageous to long-term
> sustainability and habitability of the land, both to the native flora and
> fauna and to the people of the area."
> 
> 
> 
> 3. REFORESTATION FOR SOCIAL FORESTRY PURPOSES
> 
> Prof. Kerry Miller explains that reforestation programmes using eucalyptus
> take the risk of interrupting the forage of local people who depended
> heavily on the native environment. His point of view is that "a eucalyptus
> monoculture in particular makes sense only from a very specific,
> exploitationist point of view."
> 
> Professor Peter Neitlich (Department of Botany, Oregon State University)
> was a reforestation volunteer and trainer for Peace Corps in West Africa
> (Niger) from 1987-1991. He observes that "reforestation efforts should
> attempt to be synonymous with natural community restoration."
> 
> Professor Dhon Sewatarmra, from Thailand, is now at George Washington
> University, in the area of International Development/Anthropology.  He
> amended that when dealing with reforestation with eucalyptus, it is
> important to be aware of its impacts on human and environment
> (biodiversity), which are greater and more difficult to deal with in the
> long run.
> 
> Prof. Dhon Sewatarmra also worked in development fields with the UN, PACT
> (US. NGO) and some German groups covering Southeast and South Asia.  He
> pictures the issue of social reforestation: "in Thailand eucalyptus is
> quite an issue of controversy.  Eucalyptus is not completely bad... yes, it
> does grow well in Australia and perhaps some part of the world, however,
> not in the rain forest. The social issues here are how people in that are
> live on.  Food, medicine, firewood and handicraft work are the sources of
> living, which only the rain forest can provide.  It is true that some of
> the eucalyptus plantation project would occupy the "degraded" land.
> However, this is not a good excuse to grow eucalyptus.  Instead, the
> degraded land deserves a revitalized program such as the organic
> development and of course it takes time (as well as it takes time to be
> degraded)."
> 
> 
> 
> 4. SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION ON REFORESTATION
> 
> Prof. Kerry Miller and Prof. Dhon Sewatarmra point out the danger of
> replacing an ecosystem with a monoculture.
> 
> The topic is summarized by Professor Tom Ashwood, from the Environmental
> Sciences Division of the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tennessee, USA:
> "Reforestation with any single species is less than desirable for at least
> three reasons:
> (1) monocultures (single species plantings) offer much poorer habitat for
> other species of plants and animals because of a lack of diversity;
> (2) monocultures do not provide for development of soils the way a more
> diverse reforestation scheme would;
> (3) if a disease strikes a monoculture, most or all of the plants will be
> lost, whereas in a diverse forest, some plants will survive (this is true
> for parasites as well as disease)."
> 
> Prof. Tom Ashwood concludes by saying that "a reforestation projection will
> benefit from careful planning using multiple species that are chosen to
> match the local climate, hydrology, and especially soil condition."
> 
> 
> 
> 5. RELATE OF PEOPLE'S EXPERIENCES WITH REFORESTATION PROJECTS WITH
> EUCALYPTUS (AND SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION)
> 
> 
> 
> AFRICA
> 
> 
> NIGER
> During the time Professor Peter Neitlich worked as a volunteer in
> reforestation projects in West Africa, eucalyptus were used for
> reforestation but he observed good reasons why these species should not be
> used. His experience there enables him to conclude that "reforestation
> efforts should attempt to be synonymous with natural community restoration"
> His explanation is as follows:
> 
> "1. Eucalyptus is native only in Australia.  Elsewhere it is exotic.
> Planting of Eucalyptus offers little benefit to the following groups which
> WOULD benefit from native species:
> a. animal needing forage
> b. epiphytes
> c. insect populations which form the basis of avian and other food webs.
> 
> 2. Eucalyptus has allopathic effects on native plants (i.e., it chemically
> inhibits their germination, establishment, growth etc.).  Areas planted in
> Eucalyptus tend to be sterile and devoid of understory forbes or shrubs.
> Eucalyptus planted as windbreaks even had deleterious effects on mango and
> citrus orchards in its vicinity.
> 
> 3. While some species of Eucalyptus were successful in arid areas which
> defied several rounds of reforestation efforts, its planting should
> generally be avoided.  Even where native trees could not be reestablished
> because of soil erosion/degradation/formation of laterite hardpans, we
> usually succeeded in reestablishing native grasses and shrubs.  Over time,
> these areas will succeed to forests again.  To my mind, it is hasty and
> unwise to introduce exotic species unless pressed by the most dire
> necessity."
> 
> 
> SENEGAL
> Professor Bob Youngs,  from Virginia Technology, Blacksburg, VA., USA
> explains that "we have used eucalyptus, especially E.camaldulensis
> extensively in reforestation in Senegal without apparent environmental
> damage.  It grows rapidly, and therefore uses large amounts of moisture and
> nutrients.  It can quickly provide protection from wind and sun for crops
> and animals in agroforestry situations, in addition to providing fuelwood,
> poles, and other wood materials."
> 
> 
> SOUTH AFRICA
> Professor Gordon Freer, from the University of the Witwatersrand,
> Johannesburg, South Africa, has read a number of African reforestation
> programmes that use the Eucalyptus (or Blue gum) to replant forests and
> stop soil erosion, and he concludes that: "A number of others use
> indigenous trees but there seems to have been no major problems from using
> the Australian import.  Just as a matter of interest it was imported into
> South Africa initially as a raw material for use as supports in the mining
> industry in the late 1800s."
> 
> 
> 
> SOUTHEAST ASIA
> 
> 
> SINGAPORE
> Professor Mong-Shing Sim, from Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore, has
> participated in many reforestation programmes in Southeast Asia.  He
> explains that:
> 
> "1. Most, if not all, Eucalyptus growth are very variable.  Variable in
> terms of germination, growth rate, and true-to-type (especially the hybrid
> Eucalyptus).
> 
> 2. In South-east Asia , most species of Eucalyptus are not suitable because
> they do not form canopy quick enough to reduce competition with native
> grass (known in Malaysia as "lalang" and Indonesia as "alang alang").  The
> scientific name is Imperata cylindrica.  Please note that this species of
> grass is ubiquitous in Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, and Thailand.
> This has led to many eucalyptus plantation with high mortality.
> 
> 3. Most species of Eucalyptus do not grow well because they show poor
> adaptation to other climatic conditions besides their own.  For example,
> the native Eucalyptus urophylla in Indonesia (Irian Jaya) can not adapt to
> the change in environmental condition when planted in Sumatra, Indonesia.
> 
> 4.  Of course, the well known problem with eucalyptus is soil degradation
> and toxicity to other plants.
> 
> With all the above factors, reforestation companies tend to be more
> cautions when planting Eucalyptus.  Hence, many provenance trials are
> conducted to evaluate the species' or hybrid's adaptability.
> 
> In South-east Asia, Acacia sp. is still the most popular because of their
> wide adaptability and uniformity."
> 
> 
> 
> THAILAND
> Prof. Dhon Sewatarmra explains that in his country "some eucalyptus
> companies promote the income opportunity for the people, but this is hardly
> to substitute what they could have gained from developing a social (or
> community) forestry and applying the indigenous wisdom (this is peculiar to
> each location)."
> 
> He interprets the topic from an ethical perspective: "There are some worse
> cases of the eucalyptus  (and paper) companies which exploit the villagers
> with fraud agreements, or deceitful tactics in paying back, and so on.
> Moreover, the way of obtaining land for the eucalyptus plantation is worth
> discuss.  There are cases of corruption to earn the land title or the
> concessions in Thailand and Southeast Asia.  The problems could emerge from
> the land at the boundaries of natural parks, or the century-occupied land
> by villagers without the title.  Normally, once the concession is awarded,
> the villagers who have lived on the land (even for generations) will be
> removed as the concessionaire has the ownership.  Then, who does really
> benefit? ...not the villagers!!"
> 
> 
> 
> LATIN AMERICA
> 
> 
> BRAZIL
> Helena Kobayashi, a student from the Graduate School of International
> Development, Yokohama National University, points out the problem of the
> over adaptation of the eucalyptus: "If it did not exist in the natural
> vegetation, and if it suits too well the local conditions, eucalyptus can
> grow exponentially, to the extent that man looses control over its growth.
> 
> Professor Hernani Chaves, from the Department of Geology and Geophysics,
> State University of Rio de Janeiro, criticizes the use of eucalyptus in
> reforestation in the central part of Brazil, saying that other species
> would be more adequate.
> 
> 
> GUATEMALA
> Prof.  Mirna Carranza explains that currently there is a reforestation
> project using Eucalyptus in Guatemala for commercial purposes.  The company
> that is responsible for the project utilizes the trees as fuel wood.  The
> species planted are Camandulensis and Citiodora.  The project is being
> extended to the Eastern Region of the country (which is very dry).  She
> advises that more information can be obtained from CATIE, Turrialba, Costa
> Rica.
> 
> 
> HAITI
> Professor JoAnn Jaffe worked on an agricultural development/soil
> conservation/agroforestry project in Haiti called Proje Sove Te, as a
> social scientist and farming systems research specialist.  She emphasizes
> that her comments reflects what peasants and others told her about  their
> experience with eucalyptus: "Evidently, the presence of eucalyptus inhibits
> the growth of agricultural crops, not just due to shading, but because it
> is allophatic. It is considered to harm crops even after it is harvested.
> As (agro)forestry species were concerned, participants preferred species
> that had personal or local uses - prosopis which can be coppiced and used
> for charcoal, some varieties of leucema that can be used as animal feed,
> neem which can be used to help protect crops during storage and as an
> insecticide tec.  They also liked some of the other fast growing species
> that could be used as building poles, or had other construction uses.
> These trees may indeed be more important and of higher value to peasants
> than those that end up in international markets as pulp."
> 
> 
> NICARAGUA
> Professor Andrew Davis describes the Nicaraguan case as follows:  "In
> Nicaragua the policy of planting eucalyptus has survived for the past 50
> years despite all changes of government, civil war and revolution.  It
> makes a good shelter bet, grows very quickly and makes excellent firewood.
> However, the tree has disadvantages.  It's fallen leaves  do not rot away
> very easily, very little will grow beneath the trees (because of the fallen
> leaves I believe not because of 'poisoning' per se) and the timber is not
> very good for structural or joinery work of any sophistication.  The irony
> is that Nicaragua's west coast has a very large number of indigenous tree
> species that have all the good characteristics that eucalyptus has and
> fewer drawbacks - the irony is doubled because Nicaragua "exports" seeds of
> both west coast and east coast (rain forest) species to several countries,
> including Australia!"
> 
> "My feeling is that eucalyptus should not be banned from aforestation
> projects but it should only be used if suitable species are "not" available
> locally.  For many projects I am sure that eucalyptus spp. would not come
> very high on the list of species-with-desired-characteristics."
> 
> He also stresses that his view is emphatically "not" that 'local is best' -
> just that 'local' should be assessed fully first.
> 
> 
> UNITED STATES
> 
> OREGON
> Dr. Wm. H. Emmingham, from the Department of Forest Science, Oregon State
> University, explains that planting Eucalyptus in Oregon, even in the
> warmest part of the state is very risky.  "Our occasional winter cold
> spells have killed most all the eucalyptus species that have been planted
> here.  Having seen it planted and thrive in warmer climates, I am skeptical
> that it actually harms the site in some way.  Of course, it may take over
> and create special conditions - e.g.. deep litter - that are either
> extremely flammable, or change the composition of the decomposer community.
>  If either of those conditions could be defined as harmful, I suppose one
> could argue the case."
> 
> 
> 6. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
> 
> Besides the persons cited in this text, it is also important  to
> acknowledge the contributions of the following:
> Ÿ       Scott Campbell, Ph.D., Crop Management Information Specialist, Dept.
> of Agronomy and Soil Sci., University of Hawaii at Manoa.
> Ÿ       David Barkin
> Ÿ       Foad (Frank) Shodjai
> Ÿ       Stephanie G.
> Ÿ       Martin J Scurrah, Spanish Department and Latin American Studies Prog
> ram, Flinders University of South Australia.
> Ÿ       Prof. Dorceta Taylor
> Ÿ       Professor Carol Giesecke, Cooperative Extension, University of Maine
> , Orono, ME.
> Ÿ       Prof. D Pena
> Ÿ       Professor Gene Wengert,  Extension Specialist in Wood Processing, De
> partment of Forestry, University of Wiscosin-Madison, Madison, WI.
> Ÿ       Professor William G. Hubbard, Southern Region Extension Forester, Co
> operative Extension Service, The University of Georgia, Athens, GA.
> 
> 
> 7. SCHOLARS RESEARCHING THE TOPIC
> 
> Besides the scholars cited above in this text , the following are also
> working with the topic:
> 
> Dr. Patricia Marchak
> Professor of Sociology and  Dean of the Faculty of Arts,
> University of British Columbia (area of research: eucalyptus - including
> its political economy, the effect of cloning and monoculturing; research of
> several sites in the Third World)
> 
> Dr. Donald Rockwood, University of Florida. (has done research on 
> Eucalyptus)
> 
> 
> 8. SUGGESTED  BIBLIOGRAPHY
> 
> "Eucalyptus: Curse or Cure?" , published by the Australian Centre for
> International Research.
> 
> "Eucalyptus: The blessings of a damned tree" in Envio, Universidad
> Centroamericana, Managua, Nicaragua, volume 13, number 160, November 1994:
> 37 - 41
> 
> Shiva, Vandana.  Staying Alive: Women, Ecology and Development. Zed Books,
> London.
> 
> _____________. The Violence of the Green Revolution.  Zed Books LTD,,  
> London.
> 
> ______________. Monocultures of the Mind.  Zed Books, London, 1993. (This
> book is also published by Atlantic Highlands, New Jersey and Penang,
> Malaysia.  ISBN: 1-85649-217-6 (Hardback) and ISBN: 1-85649-218-4
> (Paperback).
> 
> Webb et al., Guide to Species Selection for Tropical and Subtropical
> Plantations.  University of Oxford Press, Tropical Forestry Papers, N. 15,
> 1984.
> 
> 
> (END)
>