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  • From: Gene GeRue <genegerue AT ruralize.com>
  • To: Homestead <homestead AT lists.ibiblio.org>
  • Subject: [Homestead] Fwd: The Overstory #205--Smallholder agroforestry carbon storage
  • Date: Mon, 14 Apr 2008 16:48:51 -0500

One of my occasionally reoccurring fantasies is that one day those of us with forested land will be paid for keeping it so, to help with carbon dioxide sequestration. This Overstory issue addresses the issue:


Begin forwarded message:

From: "The Overstory" <overstory AT agroforestry.net>
Date: April 14, 2008 4:11:21 PM CDT
To: "Gene GeRue" <genegerue AT ruralize.com>
Subject: The Overstory #205--Smallholder agroforestry carbon storage

Publication date: April 14, 2008



The Overstory #205--What smallholder agroforestry systems
are appropriate for carbon storage?
By James M. Roshetko and Rodel D. Lasco



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The Overstory #205--What smallholder agroforestry systems
are appropriate for carbon storage?
By James M. Roshetko and Rodel D. Lasco


Contents:

: INTRODUCTION
: WHAT TYPES OF SMALLHOLDER AGROFORESTRY SYSTEMS ARE
APPROPRIATE FOR C STORAGE?
: A CLOSING COMMENT REGARDING REDD
: TABLE I
: ORIGINAL SOURCE
: ABOUT THE AUTHORS
: WEB LINKS
: RELATED EDITIONS OF THE OVERSTORY
: PUBLISHER NOTES
: SUBSCRIPTIONS


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To view this article with its original formatting, download it in PDF
format from:
<http://www.agroforestry.net/overstory/Carbon_Smallholders_OVERSTORY205.pdf >



INTRODUCTION

Tropical forests have the largest potential to mitigate climate change
amongst the world's forests through conservation of existing carbon
pools (e.g. reduced impact logging), expansion of carbon sinks (e.g.
reforestation, agroforestry), and substitution of wood products for
fossil fuels (Schlamadinger et al., 2007; Brown et al. 1996; Brown et
al. 2001). In tropical Asia, it is estimated that forestation,
agroforestry, regeneration and avoided deforestation activities have the
potential to sequester large amounts of carbon.

Tree-based land-use systems natural forest, forest plantations and
agroforestry systems sequester CO2 through the carbon (C) stored in
their biomass. By promoting land-use systems which have higher C
contents than the existing plant community, net gains in C stocks (hence
sequestration) can be realized. The most significant increases in C
storage can be achieved by moving from lower-biomass land-use systems
(e.g. grasslands, agricultural fallows and permanent shrublands) to
tree-based systems. As many efforts to achieve increased forest C
storage may have negative implications for the rural poor, options that
support human livelihoods deserve special attention.

Globally, the greatest potential area for expanding agroforestry
practices and other forms of land-use intensification is in areas
considered 'degraded' at the margins of the humid tropics, such as many
secondary forest fallows, Imperata grasslands, and degraded pastures
(Sampson and Scholes 2000). It is estimated that a total of 10.5106 ha
can be put into agroforestry yearly with enabling government policies
such as those described by Fay et al. (1998) and Tomich et al. (1998).
According to the IPCC, the land availability for afforestation options
(which include agroforestry among others) depends on the price of carbon
and how that competes with existing or other land-use, financial
returns, barriers to changing land uses, land tenure patterns and legal
status, commodity price support, and other social and policy factors
(Nabuurs et al., 2007). In the short-term (2008- 2012), it is estimated
that up to 5.3 million ha is available in developing countries for
afforestation/reforestation under the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM).
In addition, to its role in mitigation, agroforestry systems can help
smallholders adapt to climate change (Verchot et al., 2007).

Southeast Asia contains vast areas of degraded and underutilized lands
that could be used for C investment. Best estimates indicate that there
are 35106 ha of Imperata grasslands in Southeast Asia (Garrity et al.
1997). Originally forests, these lands include pure grasslands, cyclic
fallows and shrublands, and are acknowledged to be underutilized. There
is clear interest, at both the governmental and smallholder farmer
levels, to convert some of these Imperata grasslands and other degraded
lands to more productive landuse, including tree-based systems (Roshetko
et al. 2007; Roshetko et al. 2002; Tomich et al 1997). The
establishment of agroforestry systems on underutilized sites would
sequester C and could prevent further deforestation by providing on- farm
sources of trees (Sanchez 1994; Schroeder 1994). Agroforestry is one
means by which smallholder farmers could benefit from C investment
projects (CIFOR 2000; Sampson and Scholes 2000). Smallholder
agroforestry systems maintain high tree densities and may contain high C
stocks. On a per area basis tree-rich smallholder systems accumulate a
significant amount of C, equaling the amount of C stored in some
secondary forests over similar time periods (Tomich et al. 1998).
Individual types of agroforestry systems differ greatly as do the
conditions under which each type is appropriate. The question we
address here is: What types of agroforestry systems are appropriate for
C storage?


WHAT TYPES OF SMALLHOLDER AGROFORESTRY SYSTEMS ARE
APPROPRIATE FOR C STORAGE?

Reforestation and afforestation activities are defined by the UNFCCC as
follows (Decision 11/CP7 2001)


" 'Afforestation' is the direct human-induced conversion of land that
has not been forested for a period of at least 50 years to forested land
through planting, seeding and/or the human-induced promotion of natural
seed sources;"

" 'Reforestation' is the direct human-induced conversion of non- forested
land to forested land through planting, seeding and/or the human- induced
promotion of natural seed sources, on land that was forested but that
has been converted to non-forested land. For the first commitment
period, reforestation activities will be limited to reforestation
occurring on those lands that did not contain forest on 31 December
1989."


Agroforestry is a natural resources management system that, through the
integration of trees on farms and in the agricultural landscape,
diversifies and sustains production for increased social, economic and
environmental benefits for land users at all levels (ICRAF 2004).
Agroforestry systems maybe defined as land-use systems in which woody
perennials (trees, shrubs, palms, bamboos) are deliberately used on the
same land management unit as agricultural crops (woody or annual),
animals or both, in some form of spatial arrangement or temporal
sequence (Huxley and van Houten 1997). The period of tree cover may
vary from a few to many years, as the period becomes longer the
agroforestry system may resemble a forest. Smallholder agroforestry
systems refer to small landholdings or parcels managed by individuals or
groups of farmers. Traditionally producing multiple goods primarily for
home consumption, now most smallholder agroforestry systems are at least
partially market-oriented. Depending on local needs or opportunities,
systems may focus on tree crops, agricultural crops, livestock or a
combination. These various systems also differ greatly in size, species
component, tree density, longevity and management intensity.
Smallholder agroforestry holds potential for C sequestration as a means
of converting low-biomass landuse systems (e.g. grasslands, agricultural
fallows and permanent shrublands) to tree-based C-rich systems.

Not all smallholder agroforestry systems hold the same potential. To
evaluate various smallholder systems from a C sequestration perspective,
we may group them into the following categories: agroforests; tree
gardens; plantations; improved fallows; rows or scattered trees;
livestock systems; community forests and assisted natural regeneration.
These landuse categories suggested by each set of authors differ due to
perspective. The key characteristics that differentiate our categories
are: tree density, C stocks, and products from the system. A short
description of each smallholder agroforestry system category and their
characteristics are given below in Table I.

Tree density is important as it relates directly to the systems' ability
to store C. Simply put more trees denser spacing equals higher C
stored per area. Those systems with longer maximum ages have higher
potential C stocks. It is worth noting that homegarden systems contain
lower C stocks than other 60-year systems because they contain a
significant number of low-biomass, but nonetheless economically
important, species such as coconut and banana. They may also have lower
tree density rates than agroforest and forest systems. There is no
fixed density or planting pattern for trees growing scattered on
farmlands or in silvopastoral systems. Tree densities in these systems
are commonly 50-400 ha-1 (Paterson et al 1996). This is significantly
less than agroforests, gardens and plantations, which commonly contain
625-850 trees ha-1, assuming tree-spacing of 34 to 44 m, or more. Data
concerning the C stocks of scattered tree and silvopastoral systems is
not readily available. However, with tree stocking rates only 8-47% of
other systems it can be assumed that these systems contain much low C
stocks. Additionally, livestock, the main component of silvopastoral
systems, are a significant contributor of methane and nitrous oxide,
greenhouse gases that are accounted under IPCC guidelines (Sampson and
Scholes 2000). Considering these points we generalize that in most
cases scattered tree and silvopastoral systems offer a less attractive C
investment option compared to systems with high tree densities.
Improved fallows/intercropping and assisted natural regeneration are
transient systems commonly used to establish any tree-based landuse
system. Both are appropriate methods by which to establish a tree- based
smallholder agroforestry system for C sequestration. Intercropping is
particularly attractive as the management practices undertaken to assure
good agricultural crop yields cultivation, weed control, fertilization
also enhance tree survival and growth; and the agricultural crop
yields will provide the farm family with food and income.

Systems that produce a variety of tree products, both wood and non- wood,
are preferred by smallholders as a means of securing tree products for
household needs, generating income and limiting risk. The great
majority of any tree-based agroforestry system's aboveground C stock is
found in the wood of the trees. Most non-wood tree products fruits,
vegetables, spices, oils, resins, etc can be harvested with negligible
impact on the C stock of a system. The data in Table I are from systems
that primarily produce non-wood products. Conversely, the harvest of
wood products, particularly timber in single-objective plantations, has
a negative impact on the system's C stock and raises concerns of
'permanence'. However, a limited amount of timber or other wood
products can be harvested from a smallholder agroforestry system and
still achieve appreciable C sequestration.

Tree density and tree rotation age are not the only factors that affect
an agroforestry system's C stock. The soils of agroforestry systems
contain significant quantities of C also. Generally the amount of C
stored in a system's soil remains steady, increasing slowly with time.
As a portion of the system's total C stock, soil C decreases with time
as the tree component grows and dominate the system. Studies in
Indonesia show that the portion of C stored in 13-year-old homegardens,
30-year-old agroforests and 120-year-old natural forests were 60%, 60%
and 20% respectively (Hairiah 1997; Tomich et al. 1998; Roshetko et al.
2002). Pre-existing soil C levels are an important baseline that will
be measured at the beginning, and monitored throughout the duration, of
any C sequestration project. Any loss in soil C will have a negative
impact on the C sequestered over the life of the project. Cleaning,
weeding, burning and relocation of biomass are common management
practices that lead to steady loss in soil C when practiced to excess.
For example, when these practices are applied in natural forests or
grasslands soil C losses of 20-50% can occur within a few years (Sampson
and Scholes 2000). Such losses are not easily reversed by converting
fallow lands back with tree cover (Detwiler 1986). The soil C levels on
such sites are expected to increase for decades or centuries (O'Connell
and Sankaran 1997, in Schlamadinger and Karjalainen 2000). Appropriate
management practices are required to protect against the loss soil C
stocks. It is recommended that cultivation of crops be limited to the
first 1-3 years when the tree-based agroforestry system is being
established and that management practices control soil erosion and
maintain/return biomass to the soil. Model simulations indicate that
these soil management practices can maintain, and possibly increase,
soil C levels, soil nutrient levels and system sustainability (Wise and
Cacho 2002).

In summary, to achieve high stocks of quantifiable sequestered C,
smallholders should convert low-biomass landuse systems into
agroforestry systems that maintain high tree density, contain species
with long maximum age, manage the system for long rotation and manage
the soil to avoid a loss of baseline C. It may also be beneficial to
limit the number of low-biomass species such as coconuts and bananas.
These considerations must be balanced with livelihood and market
objectives of the smallholders' management plan. Carbon is a new and
mysterious product for smallholder farmers, even less tangible than
other environmental services watershed protection or biodiversity
conservation. Farmers must feel confident that they will benefit from
their efforts. Agroforestry systems that provide tangible socioeconomic
benefits are less likely to be converted to other landuse system. In
most cases, the systems should be multiple species, with the mix
determined by household needs and market demand. Management must be
flexible to limit risk and enable farmers to adjust to changing market
opportunities (Mayers and Vermeulen 2002; Tyynela et al. 2002). It is
recommended that farmers receive a carbon payment for tree cultivation
to promote transparency and farmers' understanding of the services their
agroforestry system provide. However, any income received from C
payments should be treated as an additional return for the service.
This approach will help protect smallholders from project or market
failure. Within the domain of economically viable agroforestry systems,
clear opportunity exists for smallholders to select management practices
that lead to higher C stocks at the system level. C sequestration
projects may not make farmers rich, but they could enhance local
livelihoods, assuring that smallholders benefit from C investment.
Under conditions of strong and steady market demand smallholder
polyculture or monoculture might be justified as segregated landuse
sub-systems in a larger landscape mosaic. Questions of economic risk
and vulnerability need to be clearly evaluated before smallholders opt
for these systems.


A CLOSING COMMENT REGARDING REDD

Reduced emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD) in
developing countries is under consideration as a component of the
post-Kyoto regime currently under negotiation. It is not clear yet how
smallholder farmers can benefit from REDD should it be included as a
carbon mitigation option. This is because unlike the current Clean
Development Mechanism (CDM) which is project based (for reforestation
and afforesation), REDD will likely be monitored at the national or
regional scale and sole address reducing deforestation and forest
degradation.


TABLE I

Categories and description of smallholder agroforestry
systems and their characteristics from a C storage and CDM prototype
perspective*.


AGROFORESTS - multi-storey combinations of various tree crops, often
with a predominance of a few species of high economic value, in an
extensive system resembling a forest.
Tree Density: High.
C stock Mg ha-1 (Maximum age of system): 350 (+60 yrs)
Products: Multiple products for household use and market sale.
Comments: Privately owned or communal land rights. Commonly 1-10 ha.
Communal areas maybe up to100 ha. May have developed from natural
forests. Provides watershed and biodiversity environmental services.


TREE GARDENS - multistory combinations of various tree and annual crops
in a system that is obviously planted and managed. Includes homegardens
(HGS) and forest gardens.
Tree Density: High.
C stock Mg ha-1 (Maximum age of system): Forest 350 (+60 yrs), HGS1 280
(+60yrs), HGS2 240 (+60yrs),
Rubber 200 (+30yrs), Coffee 160 (+25yrs)
Products: Multiple products for household use and market sale.
Comments: Usually privately owned, 0.25-5 ha, could be larger or as
small as 0.10 ha. Communal gardens may be up to 100 ha. Provides
watershed and agro-biodiversity environmental services. HGS2 includes
timber production on a 20-year rotation.


PLANTATIONS - of timber, fruit or other commodity (coffee, rubber, etc)
containing one or few species.
Tree Density: High.
C stock Mg ha-1 (Maximum age of system): Timber 300 (+40yrs), Rubber 190
(+25yrs), Oil Palm 180 (+20yrs), Coffee 100 (+25yrs)
Products: A few products primarily for market sale.
Comments: Privately owned, 0.25-5 ha. Possibly provides watershed
environmental services. These systems are vulnerable to market
fluctuations and contain very low biodiversity levels.


SCATTERED TREES ON FARMLANDS - on farms, including border plantings,
contour plantings, windbreaks, and irregularly spaced trees.
Tree Density: Low to medium.
C stock Mg ha-1 (Maximum age of system): Unknown (Low)
Products: Varies. Possibly multiple products for household use and
market sale.
Comments: Privately owned, 0.25-5 ha.


LIVESTOCK (SILVOPASTORAL) SYSTEMS - combining trees at irregular or
uniform spacing with livestock production, including hedgerows of fodder
trees used for intensive feed production.
Tree Density: Low to medium.
C stock Mg ha-1 (Maximum age of system): Unknown (Low)
Products: Livestock products for home use and market sale
Comments: Privately owned or communal land rights. Commonly 0.5-5 ha.
Communal areas maybe up to 100 ha.


COMMUNITY FOREST LAND / FOREST PRESERVES same as 1 and 2 above?- areas
of natural or secondary forests managed by communities for environmental
goals (biodiversity or soil/water conservation).
Tree Density: High.
C stock Mg ha-1 (Maximum age of system): 350 (+60yrs)
Products: Low-intensity extraction of Non-wood products
Comments: Communal land rights, 10-1000s ha. There maybe individual
rights for sub-units of 0.5-5 ha. Provides watershed and biodiversity
environmental services.


IMPROVED FALLOWS / INTERCROPPING - combining annual crops with trees,
including taungya or alleycropping systems. Often, a method used to
establish a tree dominant system.
Tree Density: Low tree density during the development stage.
C stock Mg ha-1 (Maximum age of system): Low
Products: Annual crops for household use during the development stage
Comments: Methods used to establish tree-based landuse systems on either
private or communal lands.


ASSISTED NATURAL REGENERATION - stimulating the growth of natural
seedlings and saplings, may include some planting. Often, a method used
to establish a tree dominant system.
Tree Density: Depends on site and stage of development.
C stock Mg ha-1 (Maximum age of system): Low
Products: Low productivity during the development stage
Comments: Methods used to establish tree-based landuse systems on either
private or communal lands.


* Some systems definitions adapted from Friday, Drilling and Garrity
(1999) and Nair, PKR. (1993). C stocks adapted from Tomich et al (1998),
Roshetko et al (2002), and van Noordwijk et al 2002. Information in the
table is indicative, not definitive, and intended for comparison between
systems.


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::::::::::::::
ORIGINAL SOURCE

To view this article with its original formatting, download it in PDF
format from:
<http://www.agroforestry.net/overstory/Carbon_Smallholders_OVERSTORY205.pdf >


::::::::::::::
ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Jim Roshetko has worked with agroforestry systems and species in
Southeast and South Asia for over 24 years. He also has workled in the
Pacific, the Caribbean and the United States. He is currently the Trees
and Markets Unit Leader for Southeast Asia, Winrock International and
the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF). His work focuses on improving
smallholder tree farming systems to enhance local livelihoods and
converse environmental resources. He can be contacted at:
ICRAF/Winrock, PO Box 161, Bogor 16001, Indonesia; Tel: 62 251 625-415;
Fax: 62 251 625-416; E-mail: <J.Roshetko AT cgiar.org>.

Rodel D. Lasco has over 25 years of experience in natural resources
management and climate change reearch. He is one of the authors of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Chnage (IPCC}, the 2007 co-winner of
the Nobel Peace Prize. He is the Philippines Coordinator of the World
Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), a center devoted to promoting "trees on
farms." He can be reached at <rlasco AT cgiar.org>.


::::::::::::::
WEB LINKS

USDA National Agroforestry Center carbon publications:
<http://www.unl.edu/nac/carbon.htm>

The World Agroforestry Centre has a number of online carbon sequestration
publications: <http://www.worldagroforestry.org>

The Soil and Water Conservation Society's brochure Growing Carbon: A New
Crop that Helps Agricultural Producers and the Climate Too:
<http://www.swcs.org/en//publications/books/index.cfm?nodeID=7036>


::::::::::::::
RELATED EDITIONS OF THE OVERSTORY

The Overstory #186--Introduction to tropical homegardens
The Overstory #147--Major Themes of Tropical Homegardens
The Overstory #109--Cultural Landscapes
The Overstory #105--Complex Agroforests
The Overstory #66--Carbon Sequestration
http://www.agroforestry.net/overstory/overstory66.html
The Overstory #64--Tropical Homegardens
http://www.agroforestry.net/overstory/overstory64.html
The Overstory #61--Effects of Trees on Soils
http://www.agroforestry.net/overstory/overstory61.html
The Overstory #42--Improved Fallow
http://www.agroforestry.net/overstory/overstory42.html
The Overstory #53--Nontimber Forest Products--An Introduction
http://www.agroforestry.net/overstory/overstory53.html
The Overstory #51--Protecting and Expanding Traditional Agroforests
http://www.agroforestry.net/overstory/overstory51.html
The Overstory #29--Tropical Green Manures/Cover Crops
http://www.agroforestry.net/overstory/overstory29.html


::::::::::::::
ANNOUNCEMENTS


INVITATION for article submissions to The Overstory:
<http://www.agroforestry.net/overstory/ovsubm.html>


ADDRESS CHANGES: Please send any changes in your e-mail address to
overstory AT agroforestry.net


::::::::::::::
PUBLISHER NOTES


Publisher: Permanent Agriculture Resources
Editor: Craig R. Elevitch

Distributor:
The Overstory is distributed by Agroforestry Net, Inc., a nonprofit
501(c)(3) organization based in Hawaii.
Address: P.O. Box 428, Holualoa, Hawaii 96725 USA
Email: overstory AT agroforestry.net ; Web site:
http://www.overstory.org

Past editions of The Overstory: http://www.overstory.org

This publication is Copyright 2008 Permanent Agriculture Resources.
All Rights Reserved Worldwide. For Conditions of Use please contact
overstory AT agroforestry.net or write to Agroforestry Net, Inc. at the
address above.

This journal is designed to provide agricultural information, but
is sent with the understanding that the editors and publishers are
not engaged in rendering consultation. If expert assistance is
required, the services of a professional should be sought.


::::::::::::::
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Any other information about yourself that you would like to
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  • [Homestead] Fwd: The Overstory #205--Smallholder agroforestry carbon storage, Gene GeRue, 04/14/2008

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