permaculture

[steved@ncatfyv.uark.edu (Steve Diver)]

Permies: 
  This paper is two years old but it provides a framework
for comparing permaculture (as a large umbrella) to 
sustainable agriculture (as a parallel large umbrella) to
the more specific alternative farming systems in use. 
  The audience included conventional farmers, and thus the 
focus on "low-input" as a bridge to sustainable ag and 
the more refined alternative farming systems.  


Source: 

Diver, Steve.  1994.  Introduction to low-input sustainable
agriculture.  p. 152-158.  Proceedings of the 13th Annual
Oklahoma Horticulture Industries Show.  Held January 7-8, 1994,
Tulsa Jr. College-Northeast Campus, Tulsa, OK.  


      INTRODUCTION TO LOW-INPUT SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE 

     Sustainable agriculture is a regular feature in farm
journals and growers meetings these days.  Thus, an introduction
to production systems that strive towards sustainability seems
appropriate. 

     While sustainable agriculture is based on long-term goals
and not a specific set of farming practices, it is usually
accompanied by a reduction of purchased inputs in favor of
managing on-farm resources.  A good example is reliance on
biologically-fixed nitrogen from legumes as versus manufactured
nitrogen fertilizers.  Low-input agriculture is one of several
alternative farming systems whose methods are adaptable to
sustainable agriculture.        

     Low-input farming is based on a reduction--but not
necessarily elimination--of chemical fertilizers, insecticides,
and herbicides.  Farmers are adopting these practices primarily
to reduce costs, but also because they want to minimize impact on
the environment or because they perceive future pesticide
regulations. 

     In a search for information on how to farm with fewer
chemicals, it is helpful to examine alternative farming systems
in existence that largely exclude chemicals in favor of
biological farming practices.  Experiences of producers who've
successfully practiced these methods are valuable to farmers
considering a transition to low-input sustainable agriculture. 

Alternative Farming Systems

     There are four established approaches to alternative farming
in the U.S.  A common thread in all four schools is an emphasis
on biological systems to supply fertility and pest control rather
than chemical inputs.  

     Organic farming is the most widely recognized alternative
farming system.  Modern organic farming evolved as an alternative
to chemical agriculture in the 1940s, largely in response to the
publications of J.I. Rodale in the U.S., Lady Eve Balfour in
England, and Sir Albert Howard in India.  

     In 1980, U.S.D.A. released a landmark report titled Report
and Recommendations on Organic Farming (1) in which organic
farming was defined as such: 

     Organic farming is a production system which avoids or
     largely excludes the use of synthetically compounded
     fertilizers, pesticides, growth regulators, and
     livestock feed additives.  To the maximum extent
     feasible, organic farming systems rely upon crop
     rotations, crop residues, animal manures, legumes,
     green manures, off-farm organic wastes, mechanical
     cultivation, mineral-bearing rocks, and aspects of 
     biological pest control to maintain soil productivity
     and tilth, to supply plant nutrients, and to control
     insects, weeds, and other pests. 

     In the 70s and 80s, organic certification of farms emerged
as a marketing tool to insure foods produced organically met
specified standards of production.  The Organic Foods Production
Act, included in the 1990 Farm Bill, enabled USDA to develop a
national program of universal standards, certification
accreditation, and food labeling.  Implementation, initially
scheduled for October of 1993, was delayed due to lack of funding
and complexity of issues and is anticipated to take effect in
1995.
    
     Biodynamic farming evolved in Europe in the 1920s following
lectures on agriculture by the Austrian anthroposophist Rudolf
Steiner.  Biodynamic farming parallels organic farming in many
ways but places greater emphasis on the integration of animals to
create a closed nutrient cycle, effect of crop planting dates in
relation to the calendar, and awareness of spiritual forces in
nature.  A unique feature of this system is the use of eight
specific preparations derived from cow manure, silica, and herbal
extracts to treat compost piles, soils, and crops.  

     Demeter (tm) is a certification program for food and feed
produced by strictly biodynamic farming methods.  The Community
Supported Agriculture (CSA) marketing programs, gathering
popularity as an innovative method of subscription farming, were
largely introduced into the U.S. by the biodynamic movement.  An
article on soil quality and financial performance of biodynamic
and conventional farms in New Zealand in the April 16, 1993 issue
of Science.  In a comparison of 16 adjacent farms, the biodynamic
farms exhibited superior soil physical, biological, and chemical
properties and were just as financially viable as their
counterparts (2). 

     "Biological" farming has become synonymous with farmers
using the Reams fertility system as the basis for crop
production.  Eco-agriculture is the term used to describe this
system by the monthly Acres, U.S.A.  The Reams system is based on
the LaMotte-Morgan soil test and the use of rock phosphate,
calcium carbonate, and compost to achieve nutrient ratios of 7:1
calcium to phosphorus, 2:1 phosphorus to potassium, and so on. 
"Biological" farming allows the use of selected chemical
fertilizers (avoiding disruptive materials such as anhydrous
ammonia and potassium chloride) and adopts low-input approaches
to use of herbicides and insecticides.  

     Diagnostic instruments to monitor plant and soil conditions
are frequently used in "Biological" farming; these include
refractometers to monitor sugar content (Brix) in plant tissue
sap; electrical conductivity meters to monitor ERGS (or energy
released per gram of soil); ORPS meters (or oxygen reduction
potential of soil); and radionics.  Based on data gathered,
foliar sprays containing biostimulants and soluble nutrients are
applied.  The Pandol Brothers, a large commercial fruit and
vegetable operation in California, reduced their annual pesticide
bill from $500,000 to $50,000 per year after adopting a
"Biological" fertility program. 

     Nature Farming was developed in Japan in the 1930s by
Mokichi Okada, who later formed the Mokichi Okada Association
(MOA).  Nature Farming parallels organic farming in many ways but
includes special emphasis on soil health through composts rather
than organic fertilizers, when possible.  Kyusei Nature Farming,
a branch group, emphasizes use of microbial preparations in
addition to traditional Nature Farming.  Nature Farming is most
active in the Pacific rim, including California and Hawaii.  

     Since the late 1980s, Nature Farming has gained wider
recognition in the United States through the coordinated efforts
of MOA and the Rodale Institute in the formation of the World
Sustainable Agriculture Association (WSAA).  The WSAA and MOA
sponsor annual conferences on Nature Farming and sustainable
agriculture.  Kyusei Nature Farming conducts on-farm research in
California. 

     In addition to these methods-based approaches to sustainable
farming, regenerative agriculture and permaculture are widely
recognized in the U.S. and abroad.  However, these latter
systems, like sustainable agriculture, are more conceptually
oriented than methods-based.  

     Regenerative agriculture became the preferred term of the
Rodale Institute in the late 1970s and 80s under the direction of
Robert Rodale.  Regenerative agriculture builds on nature's own
inherent capacity to cope with pests, enhance soil fertility, and
increase productivity.  It implies a continuing ability to re-
create the resources that the system requires.  In practice,
regenerative agriculture uses low-input and organic farming
systems as a framework to achieve these goals.  

     Permaculture is a contraction of "permanent agriculture" and
was coined by Bill Mollison, an Australian forest ecologist, in
1978.  Permaculture is concerned with designing ecological human
habitats and food production systems, and follows specific
guidelines and principles in the design of these systems.  To the
extent that permaculture is not a production system, per se, but
rather a land use planning philosophy, it is not limited to a
specific method of production.  Thus, practically any site-
specific ecological farming system is amenable to permaculture.   

     A common thread among all six schools is an opposing world
view to the industrial model of agriculture.  These competing
paradigms were summarized in "Conventional Versus Alternative
Agriculture: The Paradigmatic Roots of the Debate" (3) as: 

     *  centralization vs. decentralization
     *  dependence vs. independence
     *  competition vs. community
     *  dominance of nature vs. harmony with nature
     *  specialization vs. diversity
     *  exploitation vs. restraint 
     
     These objectives obviously have more to do with societal and
economic responses to modern industrial agriculture than they do
with farming practice A or farming practice B.  Nevertheless,
they underscore the sometimes contentious debate between
sustainable farming advocates and supporters of high-input
conventional agriculture.  

Evolution of Sustainable Agriculture

     In the 1960s and 70s, a growing environmental agriculture
movement evolved in response to increasing soil erosion,
pesticide use, and groundwater contamination.  Simultaneously,
economic conditions for farmers were becoming more stressful and
the number of family farms declined. 

     In 1980 Wes Jackson of The Land Institute in Salina, KS,
began using the term "sustainable agriculture" to describe an
alternative system of agriculture based upon resource
conservation and quality of rural life.  Through the lobbying
efforts of several nonprofit farming organizations, Congress
passed legislation in the 1985 Farm Bill that mandated
implementation of a low-input sustainable agriculture program by
the Department of Agriculture.  

     In 1988 U.S.D.A. initiated the Low-Input Sustainable
Agriculture research and education program, or LISA.  In 1991 the
name of this program was changed to the Sustainable Agriculture
Research and Education Program, or SARE.  Funds made available
through the LISA/SARE programs have resulted in significant
additions to landgrant research and extension programs in the
last five years. 

     While sustainable agriculture has become the umbrella under
which many of the above-mentioned alternative farming systems
fall, it is important to note that sustainable agriculture is
really a long-term goal, not a specific set of farming practices. 
In Sustainable Agriculture in Temperate Zones (4) sustainable
agriculture was defined as such: 

     Sustainable Agriculture is a philosophy based on human
     goals and on understanding the long-term impact of our
     activities on the environment and on other species. Use
     of this philosophy guides our application of prior
     experience and the latest scientific advances to create
     integrated, resource-conserving, equitable farming
     systems.  These systems reduce environmental
     degradation, maintain agricultural productivity,
     promote economic viability in both the short and long
     term and maintain stable rural communities and quality
     of life.

Three indicators that appear most frequently in a definition of
sustainable agriculture are:

     *  Environmentally sound
     *  Economically viable
     *  Socially acceptable

     In this context, sustainable agriculture embraces all
agricultural systems striving to meet these criteria.  Many
aspects of modern conventional agriculture are included in
sustainable agriculture, just as are many aspects of alternative
farming systems. 

     One aspect of modern agriculture receiving a lot of
attention in the sustainable agriculture discussion is the use of
chemical inputs to supply fertility and pest control.  While
agriculture chemicals will continue to play an important role in
American agriculture, many farmers are looking at alternatives
due to environmental, economical, or regulatory reasons.  In a
transition to farming systems more reliant on biological methods
of production, low-input farming serves as an intermediary step. 

Low-Input Agriculture

     The term low-input agriculture has been defined as a
production activity that uses synthetic fertilizers or pesticides
below rates commonly recommended by the Extension Service.  It
does not mean elimination of these materials.  Yields are
maintained through greater emphasis on cultural practices, IPM,
and utilization of on-farm resources and management. 

     Although the term "low-input farming" has often been used to
describe any system of alternative agriculture, it can be seen
that it is distinctly different from organic farming, etc.
Nevertheless, any system that reduces purchased chemical inputs
can be called low-input farming. 

     As research funded through U.S.D.A.'s LISA/SARE program has
emerged, it is apparent that many Extension programs are now
offering low-input practices as a regular option for growers. 
Examples of low-input agriculture Extension Service programs in
the United States:

     *  University of Arkansas reduced herbicide program for
        soybeans
     *  University of Massachusetts low-spray apple orchard
        program
     *  Pennsylvania State University living mulches for
        vegetables program 

     In Oklahoma, speakers have reported at Horticulture
Industries Show meetings that:  (1) poultry litter can replace
nitrogen fertilizers in the production of watermelons; (2) legume
cover crops can supply the total nitrogen requirements of pecan
trees; and, (3) two timely applications of a synthetic
insecticide can produce a full crop of worm-free apples. 

     In Arkansas, speakers have reported at the Arkansas Society
for Horticultural Science meetings that:  (1) compost amended
potting mixes produce superior vegetable transplants than
traditional soilless mixes; (2) no-till vegetable systems are
feasible using reduced herbicide rates to kill cover crops; and,
(3) subterranean clover living mulches supply nitrogen and weed
control in peach orchards. 
     
     Integrated pest management is probably the oldest and most
widely recognized Extension Service program devoted to low-input
agriculture.  However, only recently have the "non-chemical"
approaches--such as cultural, mechanical, and biological--within
the IPM framework been emphasized over the chemical component. 
Some programs, in fact, are now termed "biologically-intensive
IPM."   

     In Oklahoma, low-input sustainable agriculture is being
practiced on many farms and ranches.  Extension efforts are
needed to photograph and document these practices for wider
distribution.  Research efforts are needed to validate practices
through on-farm research for wider application. 

     Finally, in the adoption of sustainable farming practices
that depend on a higher degree of management of biological
resources, it is helpful to remember one or two ideas about
priorities in farming:   

     "Any system that allows people to get started, however
imperfect it might be, is the right system for that situation." 

    That is to say that during these rough times in U.S. agriculture,
it is far more important to help young people get into farming,
and keep established farmers financially secure, than it is to
worry about eliminating tools--including fertilizers and
pesticides--that support farming.  In other words, "get the
engine running first, then adjust the carburetor."    


References:

1)   USDA.  1980.  Report and Recommendations on Organic
     Farming.  U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 
     94 p.

2)   Reaganold, J.P., et al.  1993.  Soil quality and
     financial performance of biodynamic and conventional
     farms in New Zealand.  Science.  April 16.  p. 344-349. 

3)   Beus, C.E., and R.E. Dunlap.  1990.  Conventional
     versus alternative agriculture:  the paradigmatic roots
     of the debate.  Rural Sociology.  55(4): 590-616.

4)   Francis, C.A., C.B. Flora, and L.D. King.  1990. 
     Sustainable Agriculture in Temperate Zones.  John Wiley
     & Sons, New York.  487 p.  


Alternative Farming Organizations:

Organic Farming

     Rodale Institute Research Center
     611 Siegfriedale Rd.
     Kutztown, PA  19530
     (610) 683-6383

     Organic Crop Improvement Association (OCIA)-International
     3185 Township Rd. 179
     Bellefontane, OH  43311
     (513) 592-4983

Biodynamic Farming

     Biodynamic Farming & Gardening Assn. 
     P.O. Box 550
     Kimberton, PA  19442
     (215) 935-7797

     Josephine Porter Institute of Applied Biodynamics 
     P.O. Box 133
     Woolwine, VA  24185
     (703) 930-2463

     Michael Fields Agricultural Institute
     West 2493 County Rd. ES
     East Troy, WI  53120
     (414) 642-3303

Biological Farming

     Acres, U.S.A. Book Store
     2617-C Edenborn Ave
     Metairie, LA  70002
     (504) 889-2100

Nature Farming

     Mokichi Okada Association
     c/o Pacific Cultural Center
     1835 Vancouver Drive
     Honolulu, HI  96822
     (808) 595-6344
     (808) 595-8014 Fax
          
     Nature Farming Research & Development Center
     6495 Santa Rosa Rd.
     Lompac, CA  93436
     (805) 737-1536
     (805) 736-9599 Fax

Alternative Farming Systems Information Sources:       

1)   Appropriate Technology Transfer for Rural Areas (ATTRA)
     P.O. Box 3657
     Fayetteville, AR  72702
     1-800-246-9140
          
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          Custom research on sustainble farming practices and
            alternative crop and livestock enterprises. 

2)   Alternative Farming Systems Information Center
     National Agricultural Library
     10301 Baltimore Boulevard
     Beltsville, MD  20705-2351
     (301) 504-6559
          
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